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The Old World in all its particularistic, heterogeneous glory, circa 1914. Source: Wikimedia CommonsIn his 1989 “The End of History?” essay, Francis Fukuyama postulated that the Cold War’s end signaled “the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.” But in 2024, the war between Russia and Ukraine, a great power rivalry pitting the United States against China, and the rise of populism globally suggest another conclusion. Namely, that nationalism, whether in liberal democratic, illiberal democratic, or authoritarian form, is the end-point of humanity’s ideological evolution instead. Nations are not converging into what Fukuyama called, in Alexandre Kojève’s phrase, a “universal homogenous state” based on liberal principles and free markets. Instead, they are reacting against universalism and homogeneity, though these reactions take on different political forms: some democratic, others not. Nevertheless, these varying expressions of discontent us...
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Ben Koan
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